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History

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Early research

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Diagram of the first internetworked connection
An SRI International Packet Radio Van, used for the first three-way internetworked transmission.

The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s.[1] After initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, who helped develop the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET.[来源请求] They drew on the experience from the ARPANET research community and the International Networking Working Group, which Cerf chaired.[2]

By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the existing ARPANET protocols, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design.[3][4] The new protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program in 1974.[5]

Initially, the Transmission Control Program managed both datagram transmissions and routing, but as experience with the protocol grew, collaborators recommended division of functionality into layers of distinct protocols. Advocates included Jonathan Postel of the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, who edited the Request for Comments (RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development,[6] and the research group of Robert Metcalfe at Xerox PARC.[7][8] Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering."[9] Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. In version 3 of TCP, written in 1978, the Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Internet Protocol as connectionless layer and the Transmission Control Protocol as a reliable connection-oriented service.[10]

The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This design is known as the end-to-end principle. Using this design, it became possible to connect other networks to the ARPANET that used the same principle, irrespective of other local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. A popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string."[来源请求] Years later, as a joke, the IP over Avian Carriers formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested.

DARPA contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on several hardware platforms.[11] During development of the protocol the version number of the packet routing layer progressed from version 1 to version 4, the latter of which was installed in the ARPANET in 1983. It became known as Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) as the protocol that is still in use in the Internet, alongside its current successor, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).

Early implementation

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In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London. In November 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983.

A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards network packets back and forth between them.[12] Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways.[13]

Adoption

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In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.[14] In the same year, NORSAR and Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London adopted the protocol.[11][15][16] The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.[17]

In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later Internet Architecture Board) held a three-day TCP/IP workshop for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985, the first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting.[18]

IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing proprietary protocols. In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman's group did TCP/IP development. They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS, VM, and OS/2. At the same time, several smaller companies, such as FTP Software and the Wollongong Group, began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and Microsoft Windows.[19] The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.[20]

Some of the early TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky​（俄语） of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.[来源请求] In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a ntcp multi-connection TCP which ran atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983–4. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded.[21][22] Starting in 1985, Phil Karn created a multi-connection TCP application for ham radio systems (KA9Q TCP).[23]

The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when the University of California, Berkeley agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for BSD UNIX into the public domain. Various corporate vendors, including IBM, included this code in commercial TCP/IP software releases. Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in Windows 95. This event helped cement TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols on Microsoft-based networks, which included IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and on other platforms such as Digital Equipment Corporation's DECnet, Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).

Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were polarized over the issue of which standard, the OSI model or the Internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks.[24][25][26]

Formal specification and standards

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The technical standards underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols have been delegated to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

The characteristic architecture of the Internet Protocol Suite is its broad division into operating scopes for the protocols that constitute its core functionality. The defining specification of the suite is RFC 1122, which broadly outlines four abstraction layers.[27] These have stood the test of time, as the IETF has never modified this structure. As such a model of networking, the Internet Protocol Suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems.

  1. ^ Cerf, Vinton G. & Cain, Edward, The DoD Internet Architecture Model, Computer Networks, 7 (North-Holland), 1983: 307–318, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.88.7505 可免费查阅 
  2. ^ Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. 2000: 123–4. ISBN 978-0-262-51115-5 （英语）. 
  3. ^ Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 1974, 22 (5): 637–648. ISSN 1558-0857. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations. 
  4. ^ The internet's fifth man. Economist. 13 December 2013 [11 September 2017]. In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet. 
  5. ^ Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, Carl Sunshine (December 1974), RFC 675, Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol (December 1974)
  6. ^ Internet Hall of Fame
  7. ^ Panzaris, Georgios. Machines and romances: the technical and narrative construction of networked computing as a general-purpose platform, 1960-1995. Stanford University. 2008: 128. 
  8. ^ Pelkey, James L. Yogen Dalal. Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968-1988. 2007 [5 September 2019]. 
  9. ^ Postel, Jon, Section 3.3.3.2, Comments on Internet Protocol and TCP, 1977 
  10. ^ The TCP/IP Guide - TCP/IP Overview and History. www.tcpipguide.com. [2020-02-11]. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 by Vinton Cerf, as told to Bernard Aboba. How the Internet Came to Be. 1993 [25 September 2017]. （原始内容存档于26 September 2017）. We began doing concurrent implementations at Stanford, BBN, and University College London. So effort at developing the Internet protocols was international from the beginning. ... Mar '82 - Norway leaves the ARPANET and become an Internet connection via TCP/IP over SATNET. Nov '82 - UCL leaves the ARPANET and becomes an Internet connection. 
  12. ^ RFC 1812, Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers, F. Baker (June 1995)
  13. ^ Crowell, William; Contos, Brian; DeRodeff, Colby. Physical and Logical Security Convergence: Powered By Enterprise Security Management. Syngress. 2011: 99. ISBN 9780080558783. 
  14. ^ Ronda Hauben. From the ARPANET to the Internet. TCP Digest (UUCP). [2007-07-05]. 
  15. ^ Martin, Olivier. The "Hidden" Prehistory of European Research Networking. Trafford Publishing. 2012. ISBN 978-1466938724. 
  16. ^ Kirstein, Peter T. Early experiences with the ARPANET and Internet in the UK. Department of Computer Science, Systems and Networks Research Group, University College London. [13 April 2016]. 
  17. ^ TCP/IP Internet Protocol. [2017-12-31]. （原始内容存档于1 January 2018）. 
  18. ^ Leiner, Barry M.; et al, Brief History of the Internet (PDF), Internet Society: 15, 1997 
  19. ^ Wollongong
  20. ^ A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN. [12 September 2016]. （原始内容存档于10 November 2016）. 
  21. ^ Baker, Steven; Gillies, Donald W. Desktop TCP/IP at middle age. 
  22. ^ Romkey, John. About. 17 February 2011 [12 September 2016]. 
  23. ^ Phil Karn, KA9Q TCP Download Website
  24. ^ Andrew L. Russell. OSI: The Internet That Wasn't. IEEE Spectrum. Vol. 50 no. 8. 30 July 2013. 
  25. ^ Russell, Andrew L. Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2019-11-17）. 
  26. ^ Davies, Howard; Bressan, Beatrice. A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen. John Wiley & Sons. 2010-04-26. ISBN 978-3-527-32710-2 （英语）. 
  27. ^ 引用错误：没有为名为rfc1122的参考文献提供内容
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